According to Bandura (1997), what kind of feedback enhances self-efficacy and perseverance?
Feedback emphasizing progress toward a goal.
In cooperative goal structures, when do students believe they can reach their goal?
Only if other students also reach theirs.
What happens when learning tasks connect to competence, self-direction, and connection, according to Boden et al. (2020) and Vansteenkiste et al. (2006)?
Deeper information processing and persistence increase.
How can students increase their acceptance of goals?
Involve them in setting, writing, and tracking goals, and sharing goals with a respected friend or teacher.
What beliefs and standards define goal orientations?
Beliefs about achievement goals and standards for evaluating progress toward them.
What does a mastery goal orientation prioritize?
Individual development and learning.
What academic behaviors are associated with mastery goals?
Challenge-seeking, persistence, deeper processing, effective strategies, appropriate help-seeking, and confidence.
What does performance-avoidance orientation seek to prevent?
Appearing incompetent or being last.
According to Eccles & Wigfield, 2020, when is motivation low?
When expectancy or value is low, or perceived cost is too high.
What does expectancy for success describe?
A student’s belief about how well they will perform on an upcoming task.
What does task value describe?
An individual’s belief about a task’s usefulness, enjoyment, or importance.
What three forms of value make up task value, according to Eccles & Wigfield, 2020?
Importance, interest, and utility value.
Which costs are included in perceived task costs, according to Jacqueline Eccles and Allan Wigfield, 2020?
Effort, lost alternatives, emotional risk, social consequences, and sunk effort.
According to Weiner (2018), what do attribution theories describe?
How explanations, justifications, and excuses influence motivation and emotion.
What three dimensions classify attributed causes of success and failure?
Locus, stability, and controllability.
What do stable failure attributions lead students to expect?
Future failure.
According to Weiner (1986, 2000, 2011), how do teachers respond to failure attributed to uncontrollable causes?
They tend to respond with sympathy and avoid punishment.
According to Sandra Graham (2020), what cause do students often infer when mistakes receive pity or unsolicited help?
An uncontrollable cause, usually lack of ability.
According to Perry and Hamm (2017), what does attributional retraining teach students to do?
Reframe challenges as caused by unstable, controllable factors.
How does a growth mindset differ from a fixed mindset about abilities?
It views abilities as unstable, controllable, and improvable.
How does failure avoidance differ from self-handicapping?
Failure avoidance steers students toward familiar tasks, while self-handicapping creates obstacles to blame for failure.
How do students unafraid of failure typically approach learning?
They set moderately difficult goals, take risks, respond constructively to failure and feedback, seek help, and persist.
Which source describes teachers’ practices for supporting growth mindsets?
Dweck, 2013.
How does situational interest differ from individual interest?
Situational interest is a short-lived response to attention-catching environmental features; individual interest is an enduring desire to engage with a subject or activity.
Who described interest's four-phase development, and in which year?
Ann Renninger and Suzanne Hidi, 2016.
What distinguishes curiosity from interest, according to Grossnickle (2016)?
Curiosity focuses on resolving uncertainty and filling a knowledge gap; interest is an ongoing desire to engage with a topic.
How can teachers build on students’ interests and curiosity?
Relate objectives to student experiences, incorporate interests and hobbies, use humor and anecdotes, present original sources, and create surprise.
What is flow in learning?
Full immersion in a challenging task with deep concentration and focused attention.
When does flow occur in relation to task challenge and skills?
When high challenge is matched by high levels of the required skills.
Which three factors combine to produce emotions’ affective response to a situation?
Physiological responses, behaviors, and feelings.
Which author and year are associated with emotions arising from bodily responses, interpretations, feelings, experience, and context?
Barrett, 2017.
Which authors and year linked emotions to attention, learning, memory, motivation, dopamine, neural firing, and working memory?
Pekrun et al., 2006.
Which author and year classified achievement emotions by object focus, valence, and activation?
Pekrun, 2018.
What does anxiety mean?
General uneasiness or a feeling of tension.
Which academic anxieties can hamper performance and promote learning disengagement, according to Cassady (2010)?
Test, math, science, and public-speaking anxiety.
How can poor performance and anxiety reinforce each other?
Poor performance increases anxiety, which contributes to further poor performance.
According to Zeidner & Matthews (2011), which three learning phases can anxiety disrupt?
Preparation, performance, and reflection.
Which author and year defined motivation to learn as finding academic activities worthwhile and benefiting from them?
Brophy, 1988.
What distinguishes motivation to learn from mere persistence or intention?
It involves thoughtful, active study strategies.
What are teachers’ immediate and longer-term motivation goals?
Productive classwork engagement immediately, and enduring motivation rooted in interests and personal agency over time.
What makes a task authentic?
It connects to students’ lives and uses disciplinary tools to solve a real-life problem.
How can teachers arouse curiosity about students’ beliefs and the facts?
By pointing out puzzling discrepancies between them.
What supports sustained intrinsic motivation and engagement?
Self-determination and an internal locus of causality.
How can teachers support student autonomy while keeping choices guided?
Offer relevant options without overwhelming students with numerous or unstructured choices.
Which students improved writing fluency more with progress feedback and goal setting than with a goal alone?
Third-grade students.
What peer-related outcome is associated with cooperative goal structures?
Positive peer relationships.
What motivational pattern is associated with competitive goal structures?
Extrinsic motivation.
What motivational pattern is associated with individualistic goal structures?
Intrinsic motivation.
What is a performance goal?
An intention to seem competent or perform well in others’ eyes.
What behaviors may students pursuing performance goals show?
They may choose easy tasks, avoid collaboration, use shortcuts, focus on graded work, and conceal low grades.
Which outcomes are associated with failure-avoiding strategies?
Helplessness, truancy, disengagement, negative emotions, and lower academic achievement.
According to Brophy (2005), what can follow failed performance-approach goals?
They can shift to performance-avoidance goals and potentially lead to learned helplessness.
What contextual factor can shape expectancy for success beyond task capability?
Perceived teacher bias.
According to Jamaal Matthews, 2018, what increased students’ value for mathematics?
Learning how mathematics applies to everyday life.
Which study reported mathematics cost linked to anxiety, procrastination, and organization among Korean middle-school students?
Jiang et al., 2020.
How is luck classified by locus, stability, and controllability?
External, unstable, and uncontrollable.
Which factors do high self-efficacy students often blame for failure, according to Grassinger & Dresel, 2018?
Controllable factors such as insufficient effort.
What cause of failure may students with low self-efficacy attribute to stable, uncontrollable factors?
Lack of ability.
How did Seligman define learned helplessness in 1975?
The expectation that all efforts will fail after past experiences of lacking control.
How did Hiroto & Seligman’s 1975 experiment affect subjects exposed to unsolvable puzzles?
They later solved significantly fewer solvable puzzles.
In Harber et al.'s feedback studies, how did essay feedback differ by attributed student race?
White and Latino students received more positive feedback than White students.
According to Dweck (2006), what proportion of students hold a fixed mindset?
About 40%.
According to Muenks and Miele (2017), around what age do mindsets begin influencing motivation?
Around age 11 or 12.
What goals do students with fixed mindsets tend to set?
Performance-avoidance goals.
Which publication linked self-handicapping to achievement damage and stronger effects in younger students?
Schwinger et al., 2014.
Which children were more likely to view intelligence as fixed, according to Haimovitz and Dweck?
Fourth- and fifth-grade children whose parents viewed failure as debilitating.
What can happen when teachers praise effort without linking it to effective learning processes?
It can act as a consolation prize and reinforce a fixed mindset.
Which source describes growth mindsets varying across areas and triggers?
Dweck, Gross-Loh, 2016.
Which transition is particularly associated with declining school interest?
The transition to middle school.
Which outcomes are related to students' interest?
Attention, grades, reading achievement, challenging-goal setting, problem solving, and depth of learning.
Which activities helped maintain secondary students' interest in mathematics?
Real-life problems and active laboratory experiments and projects.
Which strategies can trigger or support student interest, according to Renninger and Bachrach (2015)?
Challenge, choice, novelty, fantasy, collaboration, hands-on activities, experiments, explanations, conversations, expert roles, relevance, utility, and group projects.
How can personalized education increase student interest?
By connecting learning to outside interests, offering choices, and inviting connections to students' lives.
What knowledge helps students recognize gaps that spark curiosity, according to Ainley (2019)?
A base of knowledge.
What did Maslow (1970) predict about fulfilling the need to know?
It increases the desire to know more.
What outcomes have been associated with curiosity, according to Jirout et al. (2018)?
Greater motivation, exploration, memory, learning, and well-being.
What did Abuhamdeh and Csikszentmihalyi (2012) report about people in flow?
They enjoy the task, continue without prompting, and produce higher-quality, more creative work.
According to Csikszentmihalyi (2000), where is flow less common than at work?
At school.
Which author and year associated activating positive achievement emotions with greater interest, motivation, self-regulation, and learning?
Pekrun, 2017.
Which authors and year described boredom as reducing attention and meaning-making, potentially deepening through poor learning?
Pekrun et al., 2017.
Which author group and year reported school-emotion percentages from a survey of over 20,000 high school students?
Moeller et al., 2020.
According to Putwain et al., 2018, what combination predicts more enjoyment and less boredom in math?
Greater perceived control when students also value math.
According to Covington (1992), what distinguishes trait anxiety from state anxiety?
Trait anxiety carries across learning situations; state anxiety is triggered by perceived threat or self-doubt.
According to Jain & Dowson (2009), what distinguishes cognitive anxiety from affective anxiety?
Cognitive anxiety involves worry and negative thoughts; affective anxiety involves physiological and emotional reactions.
According to Zeidner & Matthews (2011), what are the three strategies students use to manage anxiety?
Problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidance strategies.
How can teachers reduce environmental anxiety triggers?
They can examine biases, reduce stereotype-threat messages, promote mastery goals, offer role models, frame assignments as feasible, and avoid visible test distress.
According to Reeve and Lee (2014), how can engagement, learning, and motivation reinforce one another?
Engagement increases motivation, which promotes learning that can strengthen motivation.
What factors support students’ motivation to learn?
Interests, autonomy, mastery goals, success expectancies, meaningful tasks, competence, controllable attributions, a growth mindset, and positive emotions.
Which questions do students commonly ask about learning, according to the 2004 committee?
Whether it is valuable, relevant, enjoyable, achievable, socially inclusive, and why they are learning it.
What did Jere Brophy argue powerful ideas provide students, and in which work and year?
Lenses for viewing the world, decision-making tools, and ways to appreciate beauty; Jere Brophy, 2008.
Which student interests can teachers connect to class activities, according to Reber et al., 2018?
Sports, music, current events, pets, family and friend conflicts, social movements, fads, and television or movie personalities.
Which work described a teacher prompting discussion about oxygen on other planets?
Stipek, 2002.
How can teachers make learning fun?
By appropriately using simulations or games.
Which task goal structures can teachers vary?
Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic approaches.
Which classroom decisions can students influence?
Work partners, seating, how to demonstrate knowledge, or what to read.
Answer 63 questions on Motivation, Flow, and Emotions.
1. A student is halfway toward a project goal. Which feedback is most likely to strengthen the student's self-efficacy and perseverance?
2. In a group assignment, Maya believes she can reach her goal only if her classmates also reach theirs. Which goal structure does this describe?
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