Who identified direct instruction as systematic teaching for mastery, and in what year?
Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens, 1986.
Why is direct instruction suited to basic skills such as computations and grammar rules?
These tasks are relatively unambiguous and can be taught step by step.
What are Rosenshine’s six teaching functions, according to Rosenshine (1988)?
Review prior work; present material in small steps with examples and nonexamples; guide practice to about 80% accuracy; give feedback and correctives; provide independent practice at about 95% success; review weekly and monthly.
How should independent work follow a lesson?
As supervised practice with quick feedback, not as the main mode of instruction.
What features should independent work have?
Clear goals, a visible lesson connection, needed materials, and moderate difficulty.
How does homework’s relationship with achievement change as students get older?
It grows progressively stronger.
Who reported the age-related relationship between homework and achievement, and when?
Harris Cooper and his colleagues, 2006.
How is students’ self-reported homework effort related to achievement?
It is consistently and positively related to achievement.
Which source is associated with the IRF pattern of recitation?
Burbules & Bruce, 2001.
What does the teacher do during IRF Initiation?
Asks questions.
What does the teacher do during IRF Follow-up?
Praises, corrects, probes, or expands.
What can effective questions do for a novice's learning?
Guide it.
What defines authentic questions in teaching?
The teacher has no predetermined answer.
What distinguishes convergent questions from divergent questions?
Convergent questions have one right answer; divergent questions allow many possible answers.
According to Kelly et al., 2018, how do authentic questions affect students?
They encourage broader participation and critical thinking by connecting discussion to students’ lives.
What questioning pattern benefits younger and lower-ability students?
Simple questions, frequent correct answers, encouragement, help, and praise.
What defines a group discussion in terms of teacher control and student questions?
The teacher does not dominate, and students pose and answer their own questions.
Who reported that more student talk does not necessarily improve critical thinking, reasoning, or argumentation?
Karen Murphy and her colleagues, 2009.
Which approach encourages students to think and talk about, around, and with a text?
Quality Talk, Murphy et al., 2018.
Which source describes Quality Talk’s preparation, discussion, and follow-up stages?
Murphy et al.
Which outcome is associated with direct instruction?
Better achievement-test performance.
Which outcomes are associated with open methods?
Better creativity, abstract thinking, problem solving, school attitudes, curiosity, cooperation, and lower absence rates.
What is Understanding by Design (UbD)?
A planning system that starts with key understanding objectives and works backward to assessments and learning activities.
Who wrote *Understanding by Design*, and in what year?
Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, 2006.
What is the first step in backward design?
Identify desired results and essential questions.
Who presented the backward-design process in *Understanding by Design*, and in what year?
Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, 2006.
What does differentiated instruction adapt to students’ differences?
Content, process, and product.
Which source distinguishes designed from interactional differentiation?
Puzio et al., 2020.
Which author and year defined assistive technology as tools that improve disability-related functional capabilities?
Goldman et al., 2006.
What must IDEA require for every student eligible for special education services?
Consideration for assistive technology.
What is the purpose of universal design for learning?
To make learning accessible to as many students as possible in inclusive settings.
Which three options does UDL provide for student learning?
Multiple ways to engage, access materials, and express understanding.
How should teachers respond to differences in students’ learning and interests?
Offer choices, layer lessons, use resources for English learners, and praise individual qualities and accomplishments.
How can teachers build trust while handling student situations?
Act discreetly and judiciously, avoid preconceived opinions, and use cooperative work and early-year icebreakers.
Who selects or creates classroom assessments?
Teachers select or create them.
What forms can classroom assessments take?
Tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, presentations, or products.
What does measurement provide about an event or characteristic?
A quantitative description using numbers.
What does assessment gather information about?
Students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities.
Which source defines assessment as gathering information from quantitative and qualitative sources?
Brookhart & Nitko, 2019.
When does formative assessment occur, and what does it support?
Before or during instruction to guide teaching and help students improve.
What does reliability describe when a person’s ability remains unchanged?
The consistency, precision, and stability of test scores.
What does validity describe for test scores?
How well evidence supports judgments and decisions made from scores for a particular purpose.
What relationship between reliability and validity must a test meet?
A test must be reliable to be valid.
Which source defines assessment bias as unfairly penalizing groups based on characteristics such as race or gender?
Popham, 2020.
What does norm-referenced testing compare a student’s score with?
Other test takers’ scores or average performance.
Why might a top-3%-ranked student lack readiness for advanced learning?
The student’s class may have limited understanding of the material.
Which themes did Clarke and Agne identify for integrated curriculum planning?
Courage; diversity and variation; survival; groups and institutions; future communities; communication and language; human rights and responsibilities; identity and coming of age; interdependence; change and conservation; probability and prediction.
What makes knowledge a basic skill?
It is clearly structured knowledge needed for later learning that can be taught step by step.
Which learning outcomes suit teacher presentations, and what can presentations efficiently provide?
Remembering, understanding, applying, receiving, responding, and valuing; presentations can introduce topics, provide background, or communicate substantial material.
How can direct instruction help manage cognitive load and reveal misconceptions?
Brief presentations and guided practice manage cognitive load, while examples and nonexamples build connected concepts and reveal misconceptions.
What is scripted cooperation?
A strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and critiquing each other’s summaries.
What does the National Education Association’s 10-minute rule prescribe for homework?
Ten minutes nightly in first grade, adding ten minutes per grade to about 120 minutes in twelfth grade.
Which eighth-grade homework learner types had better grades and test scores over the year?
Fast learners and high-effort learners.
What assignment qualities make students more likely to put effort into homework?
Homework should be interesting, valuable, reasonably challenging, and not anxiety-provoking.
What is recitation as a teaching pattern?
Teachers pose questions and students answer them.
How many right answers do convergent questions have?
Only one.
How many single correct answers do divergent questions have?
None.
According to Sadker & Sadker, 2006, how many questions does a typical teacher ask per hour?
30 to 120 questions.
According to Pashler et al., 2007, what do deep explanations address?
Causes, consequences, motivations, evidence, or logical justifications.
According to Pashler et al., 2007, which question forms prompt deep explanations?
Why, why-not, how, what-if, comparisons, and evidence questions.
According to Rowe, 1974, how long do teachers wait for answers on average?
One second.
Which study found only 1.6 minutes of student-centered discussion per 60-minute class?
Applebee et al., 2003.
What are two benefits of group discussions for student participation?
They can increase motivation and engagement.
Which challenges can group discussions create for students and teachers?
They can cause anxiety, lose focus, or let a few students dominate.
How many students typically participate in a Quality Talk group?
Four to six students.
Which abilities describe deep understanding in UbD?
Explaining, interpreting, applying, taking perspective, empathizing, and demonstrating self-knowledge about a topic.
Who described deep understanding in *Understanding by Design*, and in what year?
Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, 2006.
Which source is associated with successful differentiation’s goals, assessment, planning, and adaptation?
Kelly Puzio et al., 2020.
Which three areas can differentiation vary?
Content, process, and product.
How many years of ability differences may classrooms contain?
Three to five years.
How many ability-based groups does within-class ability grouping create?
Two or three groups.
What percentage of sampled U.S. primary-grade teachers used ability grouping for reading?
63%.
Which students were less likely to receive comprehension questions, according to Chorzempa and Graham?
Students in lower-ability groups.
How can computer instructional programs support students learning new concepts through small steps?
They can repeat lessons and steps as often as needed.
How can assistive programs help sustain attention in students with attention-deficit disorders?
By using images, sounds, and game-like features.
How can text-to-speech tools support people with reading difficulties or blindness?
They can convert text into spoken words.
What can text-to-speech tools do with selected words?
Speak them aloud.
Which author and year are cited for word processors supporting students with illegible handwriting?
Hallahan et al., 2019.
How do word processors help students whose handwriting is illegible improve their ideas?
They can record, reorganize, and improve ideas without rewriting by hand.
What does universal design consider when designing new environments or tools?
All users’ needs.
Which organization led UDL development, and which 2018 work is used worldwide?
CAST; *Guidelines for Universal Design for Learning* (2018).
In the UDL guidelines, what does engagement represent?
The “why” of learning.
How long should small-group interaction last per class period?
No more than 15 minutes.
How are standardized tests administered and scored across test takers?
They use the same directions, time limits, and scoring for all test takers.
What is a pretest used to assess before instruction?
Students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities.
Which reliability ranges and thresholds did Brookhart & Nitko, 2019, specify?
Coefficients range from 0.0 to 1.0; above 0.90 is very reliable, 0.80–0.90 is good, and below 0.80 is not very good for standardized tests such as the SAT or ACT.
What does the standard error of measurement estimate?
How much a student’s scores would vary if testing were repeated.
What does a confidence interval represent for a student’s score?
A range likely to include the student’s true score, accounting for measurement error.
What does content-related validity evidence show about a test?
It covers important course topics without extraneous content.
What is a norm group in educational testing?
A large student sample used as a comparison for test scoring.
Which sources can provide educational norm groups?
Classes or schools, school districts, national samples, and international samples.
How long may a national norm sample be used for comparison?
For several years, until the test is revised or re-normed.
How does a high-SES district typically score against a national norm group?
Almost always above it.
When are norm-referenced tests especially appropriate for admissions?
When only the top candidates can be admitted.
Which outcomes are poorly suited to norm-referenced testing?
Psychomotor outcomes and affective outcomes such as attitudes and values.
Answer 61 questions on Classroom Assessment and Testing.
1. Which description best defines direct instruction, also called explicit teaching?
2. A teacher is choosing a topic for step-by-step direct instruction. Which topic is the best fit?
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