What can modeling change in an observer?
Behavior, thinking, or emotions.
What factors did social cognitive theory add to social learning theory?
Cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations.
How does triadic reciprocal causality explain human functioning?
As dynamic interaction among personal, environmental, and behavioral influences.
Which factors influence observational learning?
Developmental status, model prestige and competence, vicarious consequences, outcome expectations, goal setting, values, and self-efficacy.
Which four elements of observational learning did Bandura identify, and in what work?
Attention, retention, production, and motivation; *Social Foundations of Thought and Action* (1986).
How can observational learning affect performance without immediate behavior?
A person may acquire a behavior by watching a model but delay performing it until motivated or incentivized.
According to Bandura, 2016, what is human agency?
The capacity to intentionally influence one’s functioning and events through one’s actions.
According to Bandura, 1997, what does self-efficacy mean?
A person’s belief that they can organize and execute actions needed to achieve a particular attainment.
What does social cognitive theory say people can influence?
Their behavior and environment.
What does self-efficacy judge that self-concept does not?
Capabilities for a particular task.
What does self-esteem judge, unlike self-efficacy?
A person’s self-worth.
What does self-efficacy belief concern in a particular context?
Capability to perform a particular task effectively.
How does self-concept differ from self-efficacy?
Self-concept is global, while self-efficacy concerns capability for a particular task.
What comparison helps shape self-concept?
Internal and external comparisons.
Which four sources of self-efficacy did Bandura identify, and in which work and year?
Mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional arousal; Bandura, 1997.
What do mastery experiences interpret, and how do success and failure affect efficacy beliefs?
They interpret one’s direct performances; success tends to raise efficacy beliefs, while failure tends to lower them.
What are vicarious experiences, and how can they affect beliefs about one’s capabilities?
Observations of others’ performances that can teach new ways of acting and alter beliefs about one’s capabilities.
What does social persuasion consist of?
Evaluative messages from people around students that convey information about their capabilities.
What behaviors are associated with higher self-efficacy?
Greater effort, persistence, higher goals, less fear of failure, and greater willingness to try new strategies.
How can teachers help students recognize growing competence?
Make students aware of their achievements as evidence of increasing competence.
What does teachers’ sense of efficacy mean?
The belief that they can reach even difficult students and help them learn.
What does self-regulation involve for reaching goals?
Activating and sustaining thoughts, attention, behaviors, and emotions.
What do students do during self-regulated learning?
They analyze tasks, set goals, apply skills, maintain motivation, monitor progress, and adjust how they learn.
What do self-regulated learners do after monitoring their progress?
They adjust their strategies as needed.
Which factors influence the development of self-regulatory skill and will?
Knowledge, motivation, and self-discipline or volition.
Which authors linked higher self-efficacy for managing learning tasks with effective strategies and better school performance?
Usher & Schunk, 2018.
What is volition?
An internally driven, intentional decision to act on behalf of valued goals.
Which source links self-regulation development with neurobiology and environmental stressors?
Blair & Raver, 2015.
How do learners eventually apply self-regulation skills in new situations?
They apply them independently.
Which three executive functions support self-regulation?
Inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.
What distinguishes co-regulation from shared regulation, according to Hadwin et al., 2018?
Co-regulation internalizes skills gradually; shared regulation involves students and teachers regulating one another.
According to Mayer (2014), what skills help online learners assess credibility and stay focused?
Metacognitive and self-regulatory skills.
Which author and year are cited for online learners’ need for metacognitive and self-regulatory skills?
Mayer, 2014.
Which outcomes are associated with school programs developing emotion regulation and social competence?
Better mental health, social adjustment, and academic achievement in the short and long term.
How can teacher training in emotional and social regulation support students?
It can support students’ learning and social environments.
When do self-regulated learning and learning self-efficacy develop?
During extended, meaningful, complex tasks that give students agency over their learning.
How can teachers help students monitor progress against evaluation standards?
Involve students in setting the evaluation criteria.
What does task complexity refer to, rather than high difficulty?
Design features such as multiple goals and meaningful components.
Which outcomes of student choice were reported by Turner and Paris (1995)?
Greater expectations of success, effort, persistence, planning responsibility, and task-completion motivation.
How does social learning theory explain learning?
Through observing other people.
What two forms of learning did Bandura’s early social learning theory include?
Enactive learning and observational learning.
Who renamed the perspective social cognitive theory, and in what year?
Bandura, 1986.
Which factors count as personal influences in triadic reciprocal causality?
Beliefs, expectations, cognitive abilities, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge.
Which factors count as environmental influences in triadic reciprocal causality?
Resources, action consequences, other people, models and teachers, and physical and virtual settings.
What is direct reinforcement?
Reinforcement received after successfully completing a task.
How does vicarious reinforcement affect an observer?
It increases the likelihood that the observer will repeat a behavior after seeing another person reinforced for it.
What is self-reinforcement?
Selecting and administering one’s own reinforcers.
What functions can observational learning serve?
It can direct attention, fine-tune learned behaviors, alter inhibitions, teach new behaviors, and arouse emotions.
What does self-efficacy judge that outcome expectations do not?
Whether a person believes they can perform an action.
Which researchers reported benefits associated with students’ high self-efficacy?
Klassen & Usher, 2010.
Which researchers linked students’ academic control beliefs with positive academic outcomes?
Anderson et al., 2019.
What does human agency enable a person to coordinate to reach goals?
Learning skills, motivation, and emotions.
Which belief more strongly predicts behavior, especially on a specific task?
Self-efficacy beliefs.
Which sources are cited for self-efficacy as a predictor of behavior?
Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Bandura, 1997.
What relationship exists between self-esteem and self-efficacy, according to Valentine et al. (2004)?
They have no consistent relationship.
When does a success strengthen self-efficacy most?
When attributed to one’s ability, effort, choices, or strategies rather than luck or extensive help.
When is vicarious influence on self-efficacy stronger, according to Gerber et al., 2018?
When the observer feels similar to the model.
What determines the effect of social persuasion on self-efficacy?
The persuader’s credibility, trustworthiness, expertise, or status.
How can interpreting arousal affect self-efficacy?
Seeing it as excitement and readiness can increase self-efficacy, while seeing it as anxiety or foreboding can decrease it.
Among students with equal measured math and reading ability, who performs better?
Students with higher self-efficacy.
What can slight overestimation of self-efficacy support?
Motivation.
Why is teachers’ efficacy multidimensional?
Teaching requires varied instructional, classroom-management, engagement, technology, and student-support tasks.
Which outcomes are associated with higher teacher self-efficacy?
Greater job satisfaction and commitment, and lower burnout.
Which studies linked teacher efficacy with job outcomes and disciplinary sanctions?
Zee & Koomen (2016); Eddy et al. (2020).
Which three qualities characterize self-regulated learners, according to Perry and Rahim (2011)?
They are metacognitive, motivated to learn, and strategic.
What kinds of knowledge do self-regulated learners need?
Knowledge about themselves, the subject, the task, learning strategies, and learning contexts.
What does metacognitive knowledge include, according to Efklides (2011)?
Knowing effective approaches, material difficulty, coping strategies, personal interests and talents, and how to use strengths.
Which strategy may help with complex comprehension, according to Carpenter et al. (2020)?
Concept mapping or frequent self-quizzing.
Which authors linked individual interest with better regulation of learning in that activity?
Renninger & Hidi, 2016.
Which authors defined metamotivation as understanding how to motivate oneself throughout a task?
Sansone et al., 2019.
How does volition help students when desired outcomes conflict?
It helps them overcome resistance.
What ability does self-control describe?
Altering cognition, emotion, impulses, and behavior to serve norms, standards, and goals.
Which researcher reported long-term outcomes for children who delayed eating a marshmallow?
Mischel, 2014.
What did Duckworth et al. report about learning self-control strategies and school performance?
Everyone can learn new strategies, and students with more strategies perform better in school.
Which factors are associated with earlier behavioral self-regulation development?
Being a girl, stronger language skills, and higher maternal education are associated with earlier development.
When does adolescent executive functioning plateau, according to Steinberg et al., 2018?
Toward the mid-20s.
Which conditions enhance executive functions, according to Diamond & Ling, 2016, 2019?
Being relaxed, healthy, and connected to others.
Which mindfulness interventions most effectively improved students’ executive functioning?
Movement-based practices such as tai chi.
According to Azevedo et al. (2018), what can reduce cognitive burden in challenging online learning?
Scaffolds, prompts, and learning supports.
Which source is cited for supports that enhance self-regulation in online learning?
Azevedo et al., 2018.
According to Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014), how did laptop note-takers perform on a subsequent exam?
They performed worse than students who took notes by hand.
Which authors and year are cited for the laptop note-taking exam finding?
Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014.
According to Flanigan and Titsworth (2020), how did students texting during note-taking perform?
They performed worse than students who did not multitask with messages.
Which authors and year are cited for the finding about texting during class note-taking?
Flanigan & Titsworth, 2020.
What does emotional intelligence enable a person to do?
Interpret emotions, set goals that incorporate emotional signals, and regulate emotions and behavior for social engagement.
Which emotions were negatively related to achievement in Valiente et al., 2010?
Anger, sadness, and shyness.
How can anxiety, shame, guilt, and rumination affect adolescents’ learning?
They can undermine attention and motivation or consume resources needed for academic learning.
What does the RULER program help adults do first, according to Jones et al., 2017?
Build emotional intelligence so they can model regulation and support students.
What relationship changes were reported among teachers using RULER, according to Rivers et al., 2013?
They showed greater connection and warmth with students and greater support for student autonomy.
How can culturally supportive relationships and inclusive teaching benefit students?
They can promote safety, well-being, empathy, and understanding.
What choices should students have in their learning?
Choices about work, setting, collaborators, task difficulty, pace, workload, and support.
How do Perry and Rahim (2011) describe teacher co-regulation of learning?
Teachers provide just-enough, timely information and support for students to acquire and apply self-regulated learning.
Which varied products can complex tasks allow, according to Perry et al. (2002)?
Reports, maps, diagrams, skits, models, or a museum.
What can successful work on complex tasks develop besides cognitive strategies?
Metacognitive strategies, self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation.
Answer 64 questions on Self-Regulation and Learning.
1. A student’s confidence affects how often she practices; practice changes her skill, and her improved skill earns supportive feedback that boosts her confidence. Which framework best describes this pattern?
2. A theory of learning explains how people learn by observing others and also considers how their beliefs, expectations, and self-perceptions shape learning and motivation. Which theory is being described?
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